Strategies/Programmes/Specific Experiences (case studies)

• Unsustainable withdrawals of groundwater have created many problems around the world. A drop in the water table, once groundwater has been used enough, can create issues for those relying on the groundwater. Natural and unnatural pollutants can seep into the water, salt infiltration can occur, and the aquifer can also become depleted, resulting in an area that may never recapture the same amount of water resources again or that will collapse in on itself. The collapse also can occur economically, especially if the aquifer is located in an arid area where refill is slow, or where the pumping is so great that it does not have time to refill; the Ogallala Aquifer (http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcsupply/3scisay2.html, http://www2.ljworld.com/news/2003/feb/07/aquifers_depletion_brings/, http://www.depts.ttu.edu/CASNR/Water/wheeler.pdf)

• The Ogallala Aquifer, located under eight US states, has been pumped since the end of WWII. A historically barren area, the Ogallala feeds 65% of the water needed to grow large percentages of America’s crops. Although the Aquifer is seen is seen as a nonrenewable source of water and the water table continues to lower, water is still mined for bottling (http://www.depts.ttu.edu/CASNR/Water/wheeler.pdf, http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/1209-10.htm)

• [SK - for other case studies, see http://www.gwri.gatech.edu/ for studies in the southeast US as well as internationally. Also, see the Army Corps of Engineers - they've been working on water resource projects in Florida with the Everglades for decades]

• Youth in the United States, and across the world, have a vital role in water protection. As emerging citizens of the world, members of families and communities as well as their own individual self, youth are needed to shape and change the water consumption patterns in the United States. One example of an education program aimed towards youth empowerment in water conservation is Give Water A Hand. Give Water A Hand is a watershed education program designed to give youth the tools needed to implement local environmental initiatives. The program provides a guide for youth and teachers to help plan and execute their own projects to make a difference. Programs and accessible tools such as this are essential to empowering youth in the goals of water conservation and protection. http://www.uwex.edu/erc/gwah/

• [SK - Other youth programs: besides Give Water A Hand, USGS (http://water.usgs.gov/partnerships.html) has other youth education programs that could be mentioned here.]

Lessons Learned/Trends Observed/Obstacles to Overcome

• Water taken from the aquifer for bottling is seen to have economic value, and therefore left unquestioned (http://www.depts.ttu.edu/CASNR/Water/wheeler.pdf, http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/1209-10.htm.

• [SK - I think more of an explanation is needed here. What exactly is left unquestioned?]

• Irrigation flow meters can be used to help calculate the efficiency of irrigation systems, to identify water loss from leaks in conveyance systems, and to accurately apply only the necessary amount of water based on soil moisture levels and weather conditions. (http://www.twdb.state.tx.us/assistance/conservation/ConservationPublications/AgBrochure.pdf)

• Using surge flow valves and reusing tailwater can increase water use efficiency of gravity irrigation systems. (http://www.twdb.state.tx.us/assistance/conservation/ConservationPublications/AgBrochure.pdf)

• Modifying older high pressure sprinkler systems using the LEPA (Low Energy Precision Application) or LESA (Low Elevation Spray Application) methods can increase sprinkler water use efficiency by 20 to 40%.
• Drip irrigation is a very water efficient method of irrigation that can be effective with certain crops and on uneven terrain.
• Conservation tillage helps preserve soil moisture by leaving at least 30% of the soil surface covered with crop stubble, thereby decreasing wind and water erosion.

• [SK - perhaps add another bullet regarding industrial use of water - we've only got agriculture and residential in here so far. Although the next bullet about Bloomington's water use is thought to be due to decreases in commercial use, other cities (particularly those in the southeast) have a boom in manufacturing facilities (e.g., pulp and paper mills).]

Quantitative Data

• Water consumption data recorded in Bloomington, Indiana, indicates an increasing trend in household water consumption patterns over time despite the decrease in overall water consumption. The total decline in water consumption is thought to be associated with the reduced commercial and industrial uses; however, it is important to note the dramatic increase in residential use that nearly offsets the decrease in commercial and industrial uses. “In 2005, Residential users averaged almost 75 gallons daily, up from 39 gallons daily in 1990.”http://www.bloomington.in.gov/beqi/waterConsumption.html

• [insert image] http://www.doi.gov/water2025/supply.html

• Irrigation accounts for about a third of water use and is currently the largest use of fresh water in the United States.
• The percentage of total irrigation withdrawals from groundwater has continued to increase, from 23% in 1950 to 42% in 2000.
• Irrigated acreage more than doubled between 1950 and 1980, then remained constant before increasing nearly 7% between 1995 and 2000.

• The Ogallala Aquifer feeds the Great Plains, where large amounts of American crops are grown: 45% wheat, 25% corn, 88% sorghum, and 32% cotton (http://www.depts.ttu.edu/CASNR/Water/wheeler.pdf, http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/1209-10.htm)

• Agriculture accounts for over 80% of water consumed in the U.S. [need to verify] (http://www.ers.usda.gov/AmberWaves/June04/findings/IrrigationWestern.htm)

• About 61,900,000 acres were irrigated in 2000. Of this total acreage, about 29,400000, acres were irrigated with surface (flood) systems; 28,300,000 acres with sprinkler systems; and 4,180,000 acres with micro-irrigation systems. (http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/wuir.html)

• Larger farms are by far the heaviest users of irrigation water; the largest 10% of irrigated farms in the West account for half of total farm water applied. (http://www.ers.usda.gov/AmberWaves/June04/findings/IrrigationWestern.htm)

• Fresh ground-water withdrawals (83.3 Bgal/d) during 2000 were 14% more than during 1985. (http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2004/circ1268

Legal/Regulatory/Institutional

• From state to state the approach to regulating water usage varies. One example of long term water conservation policy in Albuquerque, New Mexico includes a 30% reduction goal coupled with an education outreach program in the local community. http://www.awwa.org/waterwiser/education/pdfs/cs_1_albq.pdf Clear cut conservation goals that reach out to the local community with educational materials have allowed the city of Albuquerque to exceed their goals. http://www.cabq.gov/sustainability/accomplishments

What should be brought to the attention of CSD?

• Environmental justice in relation to the inequitable distrubution of water and the access to water as a human right

• Ensuring not just quantity, but quality of water distributed to all sectors [SK - what is meant by sectors here? sectors based on demographics or by operation (i.e., residential v. commercial v. agriculture)?]

• Long term effects of water withdrawal
• Educating and finding solutions to the increasing trends of household water consumption within the US as well as bottling water

Finance

• Stock costs and depletion costs rise as the groundwater system is depleted, making the economic pursuits less viable (Conserving the Ogallala Aquifer: Efficiency, Equity, and Moral Motives Jeffrey M. Peterson, Thomas L. Marsh, and Jeffery R. Williams).

• [SK - what does "economic pursuits" refer to? Economic pursuits of groundwater extraction, or economic pursuits of restoring groundwater systems?]

• Despite the need for legislation to decrease the amount of water withdrawn from the Ogallala, few restrictions have passed. Despite the fact that continual increase in water withdrawal may provide immediate profit increase, the long term impacts from increased water withdrawal will inevitably result in decreased profit or collapse of the economic and water resource systems.

• [SK- perhaps add more regarding the finance side if this section is on Finance. The first bullet starts discussing reasons behind why the financial incentives might not be there, but I think we could add another bullet regarding what could be done, or areas concerned with finance and economics that CSD needs to focus on. The second bullet that starts discussing the lack of legislation could be elaborated on - what kind of legislation is needed? Perhaps discuss examples such as passing legislation restricting water use for certain times of the year, legislation requiring water recycling or water collection from stormwater systems, etc to be purified and used for irrigation, etc, legislation calling for increases prices. This might be too detailed for this submission, but just a thought...]

New Developments and Challenges

• The increasing trend of greater household water consumption is one of the societal challenges for the US. The availability of water must be coupled with sufficient education to keep such rapidly increasing trends of household water use in check. The rapid consumption rate has significant effects on the local ecosystems, which must be recongized. “http://www.bloomington.in.gov/beqi/waterConsumption.html

• Water Use Efficiency (WUE) is defined as crop yield per unit of applied water. In a Subsurface Drip Irrigation study conducted on cotton, Phene et al. (1992) found that out of eight irrigation methods SDI had the highest WUE. (http://www.uidaho.edu/extension/drought/neufeld.pdf)

• [SK - There could be more language added to the 2nd bullet on WUE calling for the use of the 8 irrigation methods under legislation]