• SustainUS Briefing on Drought and Desertification for the 16th Session of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development

May 2008

SustainUS, the United States network of youth advocating for sustainable development, recognizes that drought and desertification have severe impacts on affected areas and serious negative implications for sustainable development. Effectively combating drought and desertification requires that the following areas be addressed: coping skills, warning mechanisms, prevention, water and sanitation, and livelihoods. SustainUS identifies the following as goals in addressing drought and desertification and furthering sustainable development.

--Identify key areas and populations most likely to be affected by drought and desertification (and intensification of those events by climate change) and implement policies that facilitate adaptation to these changes --Promote the use of and access to drought and desertification warning systems --Establish and encourage programs combating drought and desertification --Address associated issues of water and sanitation through use of water resource planning and management and improvements to sanitation infrastructure --Improve rural livelihoods

In the following sections, SustainUS presents case studies focused on combating drought and desertification by addressing coping skills, warning mechanisms, prevention, water and sanitation, and livelihoods.

Coping Skills

Disasters, such as drought, threaten victims' economic situations, living environments, as well as their mental and physical health, and those who lack resources are most vulnerable. Through understanding the needs of a community, developing drought preparedness programs to raise acceptance of adapting to change and emphasizing alternative economic strategies, communities would be better equipped to adapt to the consequences associated with the onset of drought.

Case Study #1: Coping with Drought: Towards a Multilevel Understanding Based on Conservation of Resources Theory

Description: The Conservation of Resources (COR), an integrated theoretical motivational stress theory can be used to examine the consequences of objective environmental events. This theory states that individuals strive to obtain, retain and protect what they value. Individuals have an innate and learned desire to conserve the quality and quantity of the resources and to limit any state that may jeopardize resource’s security. When resources are threatened with loss, when resources are lost, or when an individual fails to gain resources following investments, bringing mental or physical stress-outcomes: negative emotions such as anger, frustration or fear, and more severe long term consequences such as depression and coronary heart disease. Drought was reported to be related to emotional stress and anxiety. Individuals who perceived themselves as lacking personal, interpersonal, social, or material resources, and realized that they had lost these resources as the result of drought, were more at risk of severe levels of stress than individuals who were resource rich and whose resources remained intact and functioned well. Those who lack resources are more vulnerable to resource loss, and hence that initial loss begets future loss, resulting in loss spirals, and children might be at higher risk. They might invest in active coping strategies and possibly adopt a passive, defensive posture than resource-rich individuals. People who posses more resources are better protected against resource loss, and have a higher chance of resource gain, resulting in gain spirals. Resources are important, not just for their face value, but because they define who we are.

Contact: (1) Marjan J. Gorgievski-Duijvesteijn. E-mail: gorgievski@fsw.eur.nl

Lessons Learned: Social support has been found to protect fast-onset disaster victims from psychological distress. Resource depleted victims deserve special attention since they are at greatest risk. Within the context of social resources and social support, the media and politics may play an important role providing accurate, timely, and unambiguous information.

Obstacles: Implementing new programs and water allocation/prevention programs require support from the community. Though residents in the San Joaquin valley of southern California and the Grand Valley of western Colorado, acknowledged the likelihood of a severe sustained drought in the next 20-25 years, they favored business as usual strategies such as education/conservation programs, water-saving irrigation technologies and construction of new water storage/delivery systems. Residents expressed little support for water management alternatives such as construction and growth moratoriums, mandatory water conservation programs, water transfers from low-to high-population areas, etc. This severely restricts the capacity of these and similar communities to respond effectively should a severe sustained drought occur.

Next Steps: There is not really a tradition of providing interventions aimed at improving health and well-being and psychological resilience in the case of drought. Interventions would benefit from a need-based assessment and an assessment of the actual coping capacity of drought victims. Educational and awareness programs about the vulnerability of drought might be initiated in order to develop acceptance of alternative water strategies and response capabilities. It would be most effective to foster community preparedness before community resources are under direct strain.

Case Study #2: Coping with Drought in Zimbabwe: Survey Evidence on Responses of Rural Households to Risk

Description: Though Zimbabwe is one of the more developed countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, rural households face enormous risk due to the high risk of drought, uncertainty of weather variability, crop diseases and pest attacks, as well as volatility of income fluctuations. The 1992 drought in Zimbabwe was the most pronounced since its independence. The drought was a single-season event, which resulted in severe shocks to the production of maize, Zimbabwe’s staple grain. Almost two million people nationwide were receiving drought relief in 1994. It was estimated that at least 934,000 children would need supplementary feeding under the Children’s Supplementary Feeding Program (CSFP) during 1995-1996. The estimated amount spent on school feeding programs was $20million. Income support in the form of school and examination fees assisted more than 265,000 pupils at a cost of $53 million. Though the core budget for the Department of Social Welfare significantly declined, it tried to continue to provide a relief program and turned into a grain-loan scheme. Households were allowed to borrow maize from the government, which would be repaid after a good harvest. In 1994, over two thirds of households expressed that there would be fewer households at risk in case of another serious drought than ten years previously. The most dominant reasons are a combination of individual strategies to predict, plan, and hold stocks as well as that households would have livestock to sell if drought recurs.

Contact: (1) Bill Kinsey, Kees Burger, and Jan Gunning. University of Zimbabwe and Free University Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

Lessons Learned: The most important coping mechanism used by the panel of households was through diversification of assets. Accumulating and selling cattle uniformly improved their economic position. Farmers, depending on the timing of cattle sales had an equal chance of receiving a price in real terms. While African communities have been found to cope with or recover from climate shocks, this might entail painful trade-offs and additional risks. Though the use of income from temporary local employment is important, it relies on public works programs. More effective programs would include access to labor-saving technologies that accelerate land preparation and planting such as plows and timely availability of locally adapted seed varieties of food and cash crops are key elements of agricultural adaptation to climate variability.

Obstacles: Though the value of livestock may rise during times of drought, they require more water than crops do. Inequities in access to land mean that in many areas relatively small portions of households can both graze cattle and grow crops. Now, many communal areas in Zimbabwe are experiencing extreme pressure on common grazing areas, both as livestock numbers return to pre-drought levels and as grazing land is more and more frequently diverted to cropping in response to human population pressures. In India, where water is also scarce, water mining seems to be a growing and profitable alternative to farming crops.

Next Steps: As water is a communal resource, we must more closely examine the economics of water markets. From a demand perspective, we must build awareness of the amount of water today’s population consumes on a daily basis. From the supply perspective, we must ensure that affordable grain is available to rural families at times of food insecurity. Access to credit that is not tied to specific crops or inputs and improved market access can increase the flexibility of farmers’ responses and facilitate livelihood diversification.

Warning

Warning systems are important as we switch from a drought management paradigm centering on response, to one which emphasizes preparation and self-sufficiency. Although there are many warning models, based on a range of technological backgrounds, all warning systems underscore the importance of environmental and climatologic awareness.

Case Study #3: Using traditional rainmakers in drought forecasting

Description: In Western Kenya, the Drought Monitoring Centre-Nairobi (DMCN) conducted a study and analysis of traditional weather forecasters’ skills and knowledge. Part of the study focused on rain and drought forecasting, while the second part examined rainmaking practices. Rainmakers and drought forecasters described in detail the importance of paying attention to animals, plants, slight changes in climate, and other signs. These signs helped them to predict and forecast the coming season’s weather. The study also noted that, in certain areas, the radio weather forecasts were inaccurate, because they are based more on data for the neighboring districts. People rely on the traditional forecasters in order to plan for planting and fishing seasons, which make up many families’ incomes and food sources. Although the drought forecasters have traditionally been elders, and their abilities are passed down through their families, youth could play an important role in encouraging and adopting their families' traditions.

Contact: (1) Dr. J.R. Mukabana, Director of Meteorological Services, Kenya Meteorological Department, P.O. Box 30259, Nairobi, Kenya. E mail: nmsa@telecom.net.et

Lessons learned: Local weather forecasting, as opposed to larger-scale predictions, highlights the importance of preserving and valuing elders’ knowledge and protecting the natural resources on which they rely. Local forecasters should be seen as a key part of larger drought forecasting and monitoring. They can also serve as community.

Obstacles: Because environmental, local drought indicators are so context-specific (and some areas may have lost indigenous knowledge) scaling up these projects will require a great deal of flexibility. These techniques will be more useful in some places than others.

Next steps: Encourage the investigation of traditional beliefs and forecasting practices; develop methods to integrate these practices into regional drought monitoring and warning plans; emphasize the importance of the natural environment in drought monitoring to promote sustainable practices and environmental protection.

Case Study #4: Oklahoma’s Drought Contingency Plan

Description: In the United States’ Midwestern regions, drought has severe repercussions on farmers’ livelihoods, general land use, as well as other industries, such as tourism. In 1997 the state developed a Drought Management Plan that attempts to reverse the previous “reactive, rather than…proactive, approach to drought management” (2). The plan, which was developed in collaboration with the University of Nebraska’s International drought Information Center, relies on infrastructure and communications channels to disseminate climate information. It describes how it “will utilize current precipitation and temperature data and forecasts; soil moisture data; stream flow and water well measurement information; reservoir storage levels; public water supply and facility conditions; crop planting and harvesting considerations; current ad projected impacts to the state’s most important and vulnerable economic sectors (as determined by the IARC); and various drought related indices…” as part of its monitoring efforts. This issue is important to youth and children as they learn about and choose their occupations or fields of study (climatology, soil science, agricultural sciences, and so forth).

Contact: (1) The Oklahoma Drought Management Team, P.O. Box 53365, Oklahoma City, OK 73152, U.S.A. Tel: +1 (405) 521 2481. Fax: +1 (405) 521 4053.

Lessons learned: Pre-drought planning and “institutional memory” are extremely important to assure that drought response is proactive instead of reactive. Developing thorough outreach and communication systems, coordinating inter-agency roles, and accurate and thorough data collection all play roles in effective drought warning systems.

Obstacles: It will be difficult to apply this comprehensive model to places without well-developed infrastructure and monitoring resources.

Next steps: Knowledge-sharing and cooperation between agencies which have developed, and wish to develop drought warning systems; focus not only on data collection but also communication and outreach.

Prevention

Prevention, encompassing awareness in addition to prevention measures, is important for addressing the causes of drought and desertification and reducing their occurrence.

Case Study #5: Traditional Farming and Water Collection Techniques Case Study - Burkina Faso

Description: In Burkina Faso and Niger farmers have used traditional rain harvesting and farming techniques to make the most of scarce rain fall and in the case of the Maradi district of Niger, to begin to reverse desertification. The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) has documented the use of traditional planting pits, or “zai”. Zai are between 15 and 20 centimeters deep. Zai catch rain water and are sometimes filled with manure to attract termites. The termites bore through the manure and dry, hardened soil increasing the ability of precipitation to percolate through the soil. Zai increases plant water availability and soil water storage. Also in Burkina Faso, using rows of stones to slow water loss and increase water storage reduced runoff an average of 12 percent where stones were placed 33 meters apart, and 23 percent where stones were placed 25 meters apart. IFAD facilitated a trip for farmers from the Illela district of Niger to visit the Yatenga region of Burkina Faso to observe their traditional water harvesting techniques including zai. After visiting the Yatenga region, several of the Illela district farmers applied newly observed techniques including changing the size of their planting pits (tassa), placing soil from the holes down-slope to allow runoff to collect in the holes, and applying manure to the holes.

Contacts: (1) Dr. Abdoulaye Mando. Agricultural University-Wageningen, Holland (2) Olufunke Cofie and Boubacar Barry. International Water Management Institute, West Africa sub-Regional Office (3) Deborah Bossio. International Water Management Institute, Columbo, Sri Lanka (4) Chris Reij. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. E mail: CP.Reij@dienst.vu.nl

Lessons Learned: Traditional water storage and agriculture techniques provide affordable and practical methods of reducing the effects of drought on agricultural production. It is possible to reverse the effects of desertification.

Obstacles: Traditional planting techniques are often dependent on rainfall and therefore agricultural production will be variable.

Next Steps: Encourage indigenous knowledge sharing between countries and regions around the world. Increase research into traditional planting and water collection techniques, such as the revival in the southern Andean department of Puno, Peru of waru waru (a system of raised crop beds, earthen walls, and catchment channels made by the depressions left by the excavated soil that collect rain water).

Case Study #6: Water Conservation Competition on University Campuses in North Carolina Raise Awareness about Drought

Description: To raise awareness about the ongoing drought in North Carolina, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (Carolina) and neighboring North Carolina State University (NC State) created a water conservation competition. The competition lasted for about three months and saved 11 million gallons of water. Publicity for the competition, which built upon a long-standing athletic rivalry, raised awareness about the drought in North Carolina and water conservation measures for students to use in their every day lives. Students at NC State reduced their water use by 29 percent per student per day, while students at Carolina reduced their water use by 24 percent per student per day. Both universities are also actively implementing long term water conservation measures including low-flow faucets, showerheads and toilet fixtures, front-loading washers. At Carolina, new buildings use cisterns to capture, store, and reuse rainwater from roofs and plazas.

Contacts: (1) Keith Nichols. North Carolina State University, News Services. Tel: +1 (919) 515 7159.

Lessons Learned: Water conservation education can increase awareness and empower young people to implement water saving techniques and technologies.

Obstacles: Maintaining drought awareness and water conservation education as a long-term activity might prove difficult.

Next Steps: Increase drought and water conservation education programs and implement at all age levels.

Water and Sanitation

Health risks associated with the lack of sustainable access to safe water and sanitation, affecting more than 1 and 2.5 billion people respectively, are exacerbated by drought and desertification. Provision of these basic necessities is critical to health and well-being, requiring immediate action.

Case Study #7: Groundwater Replenishment System in Orange County, California, U.S.A.

Description: In January 2008 the Groundwater Replenishment System (GWRS) in Orange County, CA became the largest wastewater reclamation plant for indirect potable reuse in the world. The $487 million purification process uses membrane ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, ultraviolet disinfection, and hydrogen peroxide to produce 35 billion gallons of water per year from secondary treated wastewater and recharge the local underground aquifer. It provides approximately 10% of the water supply daily (70 million gallons) to the growing population of Orange Country in response to increasing water shortages in the Southwest. Imperative to project implementation was overcoming the stigma against “toilet to tap” water by proactively anticipating and addressing the controversy to gain public support years before breaking ground.

Benefits of GWRS include: a) Providing a drought-proof water source and increasing water independence. b) Decreasing water imports by 1/3 and related energy use by 50%. c) Decreasing water volume released into ocean where it is instantly unusable as freshwater. d) Improving the groundwater basin water quality by reducing mineral content. e) Reuse a portion of the 2.1 trillion gallon water resource flushed down U.S. toilets annually.

Contact: (1) Groundwater Replenishment System, c/o Orange County Water District, P.O. Box 8300, Fountain Valley, CA 92728 8300, U.S.A. Tel: +1 (714) 378 3200. E mail: info@ocwd.com . Website: http://www.gwrsystem.com/.

Lessons Learned: Negative perceptions of wastewater recycling for potable use can be overcome with early initiation of open two-way communication with the community. Strategies include: a) community presentations; b) endorsements from political officials, major businesses, medical and public health communities, environmental groups, scientists; c) invitations to tour plant and sample filtered water; and d) safety assurance through continuous water monitoring and process backups.

Obstacles: Wastewater recycling projects are limited by the psychology distaste of drinking recycled wastewater, high cost of wastewater purification, availability of technology, and lack of public health infrastructure for continuous monitoring.

Next Steps: Gain public acceptance of wastewater recycling through awareness programs and education that includes responsible water use, and investigate the feasibility and encourage implementation of wastewater reuse in other communities for drinking water, agricultural or household use.

Case Study #8: Water Management and Wastewater Reclamation in Windhoek, Namibia

Description: To respond to the continuous potable water shortages faced by the capital of the most arid country in sub-Saharan Africa, the city of Windhoek, Namibia has adopted a progressive system of water management that includes stringent water supply regulations, wastewater reclamation (begun in 1968), and education. Government legislation minimizes water losses (to 10% city-wide) through progressive water pricing, continuous water audits and leakage detection, prevention of water pollution, prevention of private property water waste, requiring water efficient equipment in new developments, and garden and swimming pool regulations. The New Goreangab Water Reclamation Plant (NGWRP) replaced the Old Goreangab Water Reclamation Plant in 2002 and is the only wastewater reclamation plant in the world that supplies recycled water for direct potable use (blended as 35% of municipal water) without first adding it to water in natural sources. The NGWRP uses a multiple barrier approach that includes non-treatment barriers (policies, diversion of industrial effluents, plant monitoring), operational barriers (backup processes implemented as needed), and treatment barriers (membrane ultrafiltration, ozonation, absorption). While the NGWRP is currently out of operation, Windhoek’s history attests to the success of direct wastewater recycling, as it has never experienced an outbreak of waterborne diseases or negative health effects attributed to use of reclaimed water. Increased water conservation awareness and acceptance of direct potable water reuse has been achieved through school education, and persistent marketing through television, radio and printed media.

Contacts: (1) Petrus du Pisani. Strategic Executive Infrastructure, Water and Technical Services, Windhoek, Namibia. Tel: +264 (61) 290 2335. Fax: +264 (61) 290 2114. E mail: pdp@windhoekcc.org.na . (2) G. Lempert. Aqua Services & Engineering (Pty), Ltd., P.O. Box 20714, Windhoek, Namibia. E mail: lempertg@ase.na

Lessons Learned: Responsible government legislation and implementation through water supply regulations can minimize water losses and maximize available water resources. Continuous good communication about wastewater reuse and integration in school curriculum can break down barriers against direct potable wastewater reuse, resulting in acceptance and appreciation for the technology. Wastewater recycling can be implemented in countries with few financial and natural resources.

Obstacles: Direct recycling of wastewater is not yet publically accepted and will be difficult to implement in areas with other options. People’s willingness to sacrifice for water conservation may be limited, especially if they are not personally experiencing the stresses of water shortage.

Next Steps: Water conservation education in schools should be extended to include health, hygiene and sanitation education. Encourage government action to develop responsible water management programs and efficient water use through regulations (i.e., water audits, low flow devices, low volume toilets).

Livelihoods

When areas of disaster affect areas that are inhabited by people, there are going to be affects of the everyday lives that these people lead. The affect of drought and desertification is not different, and helping those affected, including women, children and youth is a way to uphold cultural ideals that have been established in creating a sense of belonging.

Case Study #9: Reestablishing Livelihoods in Ethiopia after Significant Drought Seasons

Description: The Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) continues to be a strong agent of aid in Ethiopia. Ethiopia has experienced harsh, prolonged drought causing chronic food insecurity for more than twenty years. IFRC responded to the harsh drought after the Ethiopian government called for assistance in 2006. Between February 2006 and June 2007 IFRC assisted in increasing water availability, health status, health of livestock, and increasing the capacity for drought affected farmers. While these actions were helpful in gaining a form of life that had been previously accepted and practiced, establishing new ways of life that are more resistant to drought and desertification in this region would be helpful if the situation were to continue. Volunteers of the IFRC were local development workers, local communities’ members and partner organizations. Theses volunteers (a large majority of them women) organized seeds and farming equipment that were given to ever 1,500 households. When heavy rains washed out 50% of the crops (maize and beans) 2730 households were again given seeds. Along with goals set by local IFRC agents, three Red Crescent / Red Cross Youth clubs were established to increase awareness of the situation and to uphold the positive attitude towards the aid movement. IFRC has established livelihood options it did not address the whole population affected.

Lessons Learned: Empowering local people in the reestablishment of livelihood options that can be profitable in a way that is less stressful on the environment. Encouraging Youth to promote peace between different ethnic and racial groups within Aid groups, through Youth clubs. Women as community organizers bring different views.

Obstacles: Achieving goals set in IFRC projects for aid in areas that are not only surrounded by tribal wars, but also have also experienced multiple natural disasters.