• SustainUS Briefing on Agriculture for the 16th Session of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development

May 2008

The SustainUS youth delegation recognizes the importance of addressing sustainable agriculture, and devoting the attention necessary to ensure that practices utilized in agricultural production are sustainable both environmentally and socially. In order to address agriculture thoroughly, we must consider climate change, market fluctuations, use of resources, urban food sources, and livelihoods. SustainUS identifies the following as goals in addressing the issues surrounding agriculture, and furthering responsible and sustainable development.

--Identify key areas and populations most likely to be affected by climate change, and implement policies that facilitate adaptation to these changes

--Develop coping strategies to handle fluctuating markets, specifically for those commodities related to biofuels and ethanol.

--Pomote policies to enhance agricultural yields that focus on sustainable use of environmental resources and minimize inorganic inputs (are we talking about GMO's under this goal? I think that could perhaps be something we should figure out our thoughts on ahead of time as it could be a conflicting area... just something to consider either in the document or perhaps just internally- LN)

--Provide more incentives for sustainable agriculture and urban food sourcing

--Improve farmer's livelihoods

In the following sections, SustainUS presents case studies focused on sustainable agriculture production by addressing climate change, market fluctuations, use of resources, urban food sources, and livelihoods.

Identify key areas and populations most likely to be affected by climate change, and implement policies that facilitate adaptation to these changes

Case Study #1: Shade-Grown and Fair-Trade Coffee protects land and crops from results of climate change.

Description:

Coffee is the one of the world’s most traded commodities; large coffee farms are abundant around the Global South. These large farms deplete the soil of its natural nutrients, cause erosion, and use large amounts of fertilizer. As climate change causes a temperature rise, farmers are noticing a significant change in their yields. Another climate change outcome that will affect coffee production is desertification and increased water shortages. Planting coffee plants underneath a canopy absorbs carbon, reduces temperatures, aids against erosion, and promotes biodiversity. While there are no national policies for shade-grown coffee, fair-trade certification entices farmers to use more sustainable practices. As shown by a study comparing a fair-trade cooperative and unorganized farmers, fair trade promotes agricultural techniques that prevent erosion, soil degradation and water shortage. Fair-trade farmers implemented technologies such as better use of runoff water, composting, live-plant barriers, and terracing about 50% more than conventional coffee farming. Certain methods, like composting and planting other beneficial crops were used 100% by the fair-trade farmers. These technologies better utilize the limited resources that will result out of climate change.

Contacts:

(1) McNeely and Scherr, 2003

(2) Jaffee, 2007

Obstacles:

As coffee prices are dropping, many farmers are uncertain if they will be able to economically sustain their farms and livelihoods. Shade-grown and organic coffees also have complicated certification processes and it costs money to the farmers to put the label on their product.

Lessons Learned:

Implementing shade-grown and fair-trade certification would help promote sustainable farming techniques that counter climate change, but also provides a financial benefit to small farmers, as there is a large potential market (believed to be worth US $500 m) for shade-grown coffee.

Next Steps:

Create a system that more widely implements shade-grown agriculture practices. Because coffee is a such an important commodity for international trade, it is important to sustain the international coffee economy, and with the effects of climate change almost certain to affect agricultural practices, governments with large coffee economies should implement policies that enforce sustainable agriculture. A wider education on shade grown techniques and benefits should be created for farmers and consumers.

Case Study #2: Forecast application to farmers in Global South protects crops against natural disasters

Description:

As a result of climate change, much of the Global South will have more extreme weather and natural disasters. Large monocultures on farms can easily be destroyed if weather conditions are not beneficial to the particular crop. To produce higher yields while also protecting their crops from destruction, farmers in Bangladesh are developing farming seasons based on drought and flooding. Entire seasons of flooding and drought are more probable as climate change increasingly affects the Global South, and by depending on these flooding seasons, farmers are adapting to new weather patterns. Crops such as rice are grown during the monsoon/ flooding season, and vegetables and wheat are grown during the drought season. By planting many different crops, farmers can utilize the new seasons rather than focusing on old farming techniques that do not produce large yields after the effects of climate change occur. For farmers to receive this information there must be an established relationship between meteorology work and farmers.

Contact:

(1) Selvaraju, 2007. Asian Disaster Preparedness Center.

Obstacles:

Climate change's effects are becoming more unpredictable, and although farmers can take steps towards adapting to new farming seasons and after-disaster conditions, it will never be certain of what natural disasters to expect. There is also a loss of communication between the meteorologists and farmers on these weather expectations.

Lessons Learned:

Farmers should not plant monocultures so their crop depends so heavily on the weather patterns, rather they should use the extreme weather seasons to their advantage by planting different crops at different parts of the year. In this study, it is believed that forecast application can be used to benefit farmers in many countries.

Next Steps:

Provide an infrastructure where farmers and meteorologists can collaborate on climate change and farmers can learn about how to implement new farming methods that protect crops.

Develop coping strategies to handle fluctuating markets, specifically for those commodities related to biofuels and ethanol

Case Study #3: Impacts of rising cereal prices on vulnerable populations and projections of continued increases into the future

Description:

Cereal price increases is dramatically impacting food-insecure and poor households. For every 1% increase in the price of food, food consumption expenditure in developing countries decreases by 0.75%. Faced with higher prices, the poor switch to lower nutritional value foods. The World Bank estimates 33 countries are subject to political and social destabilization due to rising food prices, evidenced by news of riots and protests, that in some cases have resulted in political instability and fatalities. Particularly, the prices of commodities used in biofuel production are becoming increasingly linked with energy prices, a worrisome link that could result in high food-price fluctuations. This is particularly disturbing for net importers of cereals (as are most countries in sub-Saharan Africa). In the past five years, price variations in oilseeds and in wheat and corn have increased to about twice the levels of previous decades. The IFPRI IMPACT model projects that under the planned global biofuel expansion scenario, international prices will increase by 26% for maize and by 18% for oilseeds. Under this scenario, global food-calorie consumption decreases the most in Sub-Saharan Africa, where the number of food-insecure people increased by more than 26% and the prevalence of undernourishment increased by 0.3% per year. Price increases also affect the availability of food aid. Food aid flows have been declining and have reached their lowest level since 1973. In 2006, food aid was 40% lower than in 2000.

Contacts:

(1) Joaquim von Braun, International Food Policy Research Institute

(2) Robert Zoellick, World Bank.

Lessons Learned:

The expansion in conversion of corn to ethanol is contributing to the rapid increase in food prices throughout the world, affecting nutrition and health of the world’s poorest people, as well as political and social stability in developing countries.

Obstacles:

Global expansion in biofuel production is predicted to result in massive increases and greater variability of cereal crops presenting serious threats to food security for net cereal importing countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Developing coping mechanisms for these rapid changes will be challenges specific to particular locations and economies.

Next Steps:

Efforts should be made to identify those populations and demographics most threatened by rising food prices under given levels of biofuel production. These populations should be provided additional assistance to ensure survival of severe price shocks to staple food commodities.

Case Study #4: Seed Vouchers in Northern TZ, Catholic Relief Services (CRS)

Description:

Seed fairs are markets organized to distribute seed to seed-needy households through a voucher system. Vulnerable households are provided with vouchers worth a specific cash value to exchange for seed from registered sellers in the community. The seed sellers redeem the vouchers for cash from the CRS and its partner at the end of the fair. The seed fair approach addresses the problem of lack of access to seed in a household following a disaster or displacement. Some of the advantages of the seed voucher and fair methodology are that seed fairs present a means by which beneficiaries access agriculture inputs that are locally available, of their preference, and meet their immediate needs; seed quality is left to the judgment of farmers; they are an open and transparent process; local crop production is supported; they provide a more equitable distribution of resources; they can be planned and implemented in a short period of time; communities are actively involved in the planning and implementation; they serve the needs of large numbers of farm families experiencing difficulty accessing seed; and they can be adapted to the level of seed insecurity. Seed fairs in the Lake Zone of northern Tanzania helped some 13,600 households produce their own food, as well as seed to be used in future seasons after four years of sustained drought.

Contacts:

(1) Daniel L. Griffin, Head of Programming, Catholic Relief Services, P.O. Box 34701, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Tel: +255 22 2773141. E mail: DGriffin@crstanzania.org . Web: www.crs.org

Lessons Learned:

In times of economic shock to agricultural markets, farmers often do not have financial access to the necessary inputs (especially seeds). This failure of input markets is not due to physical unavailability of seeds in rural areas but to limited financial access of farmers to those seeds, so attempts to address this failure are most successful if they target the root financial obstacles.

Obstacles:

To implement a successful Seed Fair it is critically important to understand the local forces regulating the supply of seed, including the role of the church and of women in seed saving and preservation. Also, the success of a Seed Fair is dependent on the engagement of all levels of local and municipal government as well as the enthusiasm of local farmers.

Next Steps:

Working closely with local communities and leadership to create the infrastructure and support for a successful Seed Fair will ensure a rapid form of relief for poor farmers in the midst of severe crises that inhibit access to seeds.

Case Study #5: Implementation of indigenous farming practices in Oaxaca, Mexico to overcome economic pressures on corn-based agricultural system that arose from expanded free trade between the US and Mexico

Description:

After 1994 when NAFTA was signed, corn prices for producers in Mexico plummeted as subsidized corn form the US entered the country. Now, as corn prices rise, farmers in corn-producing regions in Mexico are faced with rapid price shocks and increased vulnerability. The price movements forced farmers to use increasingly exploitative environmental practices to continue to eek out a living. The Center for Integral Small Farmer Development in the Mixteca (CEDICAM), a democratic, farmer-led local environmental organization leads an unprecedented land renewal and economic development program that employs ancient indigenous agricultural practices to transform the barren, highly eroded area into rich, arable land. They have planted more than one million native-variety trees, built hundreds of miles of ditches to retain water and prevent soil from eroding, and adapted traditional Mixteca indigenous practices to restore the regional ecosystem. Where recently only 25-30% of the land was arable, communities now farm upwards of 80% of the land. The contour ditches that prevent run-off of rain water have led to a 50-100% increase in spring levels. Farmers throughout the area have converted from industrial fertilizers and pesticides to natural compost fertilizers and native seed varieties, and are returning to local foods and a traditional indigenous diet.

Lessons Learned:

As free trade agreements and rising food prices put additional pressure on environmental resources, indigenous practices offer environmentally sustainable methods of cropping that can generate income and opportunity for rural farmers when applied appropriately.

Obstacles:

These methods are only appropriate where community support is galvanized to transition back to indigenous practices. Applying this unique approach in new settings will require a clear understanding of indigenous history and cultural presence in the area.

Contact:

(1) Jesus Leon Santos, CEDICAM

Next Steps:

Identify areas where indigenous practices are being threatened by growing pressures resulting from changes in the global food economy and examine how those practices can be resurrected and reapplied to promote environmentally sustainable cultivation.

Promote policies to enhance agricultural yields that focus on sustainable use of environmental resources and minimize inorganic inputs

"For a land use system to be sustainable requires, first, that it should meet the needs of farmers and other land users; and, secondly, that it should achieve conservation of the whole range of natural resources, including climate, water, soils, landforms, forests and pastures." (Young, 1998)

Case Study #6: Combating land degradation and improvement of land productivity

Description:

In Honduras, farmers transitioned from a conventional slash and burn type agricultural system to conservation agriculture in an effort to improve soil nutrient quality and increase yields. Farmers made this transition after being educated on the potential gains and reduced input costs. The results of this transition were that crop production remained the same for the first two years, and then later actually increased; farmers ended up earning extra income while at the same time using much more sustainable approaches. Obviously, because farmers generally experience gains with conservation agricultural practices, they will be very inclined to practice conservation agriculture provided that they are educated and also able to make the transition without too much initial capital input.

Obstacles:

Implementing conservation agriculture is frequently initially very expensive and energy intensive. An example of this is the fact that the compaction that results from conventional agriculture frequently must be reversed initially with subsoiler type equipment such as chisel plows before transitioning to a no-till type system. (http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/Y1730E/y1730e04.htm#box_17)

Lessons Learned:

Practicing conservation agriculture generally saves energy and leaves yields unchanged or improved. With this in mind, governments and organizations should seek to educate farmers on the potential gains that can be had; farmers are businessmen who will recognize the advantages of a cheaper and potentially better system.

Next Steps:

Promote programs that provide farmers with the initial capital in order to encourage farmers to make the jump from conventional to conservation agriculture

Case Study #7: Farmers’ Benefits in Nigeria

Description:

In Nigeria, a large-scale study was done to determine the energy inputs required in conventional tillage type high herbicide agriculture compared to the conservation method of no-till low herbicide agriculture. The results where pretty outstanding; the study concluded that conservation reduces the energy and time required to grow crops. According to the study, “The farmers' point of view is a central consideration in an adoption process (Box 8); they will not change their practices if they do not see any benefit. In fact, the reductions in costs and time required are usually the most compelling reasons for farmers to adopt conservation tillage.”

Contacts:

Natural Resources Management and Environment Department.

Website: http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/Y1730E/y1730e03.htm#box_6

Lessons Learned:

Practicing conservation agriculture generally saves energy and leaves yields unchanged or improved. With this in mind, governments and organizations should seek to educate farmers on the potential gains that can be had; farmers are businessmen (business people LN) who will recognize the advantages of a cheaper and potentially better system.

Obstacles:

Most agricultural policies encourage farmers to farm with external fertilizers and less sustainable technologies; in many cases conventional agriculture is adopted simply because the policy in place does not favor sustainable farming practices.

Next Steps:

Promote programs that educate farmers about the potential benefits of conservation agriculture.

Provide more incentives for sustainable agriculture and urban food sourcing

Case Study #8: Rise of small-scale urban agriculture in Cuba

Description:

Cuba's food system was thrown into peril in 1989 with the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc, which had served as Cuba's principal source for several staple foodstuffs, as well as machinery and chemical inputs necessary for domestic industrial-scale agriculture. This "Special Period" prompted a necessarily rapid transformation of the national food system from import dependency to self-sufficiency and economic and environmental sustainability. Low-input, highly productive, environmentally responsible urban agriculture was heavily promoted by the government as a pillar of this transformation, both through the provision of state-owned urban land for "popular gardens" and through state support for research into and dissemination of advanced organic farming technologies (pest control agents, tools, seeds, etc.). State-run agricultural research offices and supply depots located throughout Havana and the country at large form the backbone of this state effort, facilitating the work of community gardening organizations in turn. Thanks in no small part to these efforts, Havana's urban gardens produce hundreds of thousands of tons of food yearly, provide decent and substantial employment for urban residents, and have greatly helped the city weather the nutritional and economic crisis brought about by the fall of Cuba's former trade partners.

Contact:

(1) Cuba Ministry of Agriculture (MINAGRI)

Lessons Learned:

Cuba's ongoing experiment in urban agriculture has shown that decentralized urban food production can play a significant role in feeding and employing city residents without undue harm to the environment. Moreover, Cuba has demonstrated the potential of state intervention - specifically, in land policy and the promotion and development of advanced farming techniques - in ensuring the productivity and sustainability of urban farming.

Obstacles:

Current obstacles include developing a large-scale, sustainable, and productive urban farming system without access to industrial machinery and inputs. A future obstacle is that the breadth and scale of potential state intervention may not be as great in other countries as it is in Cuba, or as acceptable to local polities.

Next Steps:

Identifying suitable urban sites for the promotion of the Cuban model; dissemination of Cuban research into and experience with policies and farming techniques to other governments.

Case Study #9: Urban agriculture programs in Caracas

Description:

As the pace of urbanization increases worldwide - in tandem with price volatility on international food markets - the importance of establishing self-sustaining urban food production has become increasingly evident to national governments and international agencies alike. Over the past five years, the Venezuelan government, aided by the UN FAO, has pursued a major urban agriculture initiative. With the strong support of President Hugo Chávez and the logistical assistance of the military, organic hydroponic gardens - in particular, small "table" gardens - have been established across the capital city of Caracas. These cooperatively run "microgardens" have enjoyed substantial federal funding, as well as expert support (organized by the FAO) from foreign agronomists and researchers; meanwhile, food safety is monitored by the state where pollution is a concern. Venezuela's program is still young, but anecdotal evidence indicates that the rise of urban farming in Caracas has helped improve the diets of urban residents by providing convenient, affordable access to fresh vegetables. Moreover, microgardening projects have attracted children and families, providing Venezuelan youth in particular with valuable skills and improved nutrition.

Lessons Learned:

The development of urban farming in Caracas has demonstrated the value of connecting urban residents to national and international governmental actors in order to promote efficient, small-scale urban agriculture. This scheme has also shown that even the smallest-scale gardens can provide significant benefits in nutrition and income to urban residents.

Obstacles:

Incorporating foreign expertise and unfamiliar farming methods (e.g., hydroponics) into a coherent urban farming system; attracting a diverse range of urban residents.

Future obstacles: Increasing the sustainability of the Venezuelan project (i.e., decreasing gardeners' reliance on the state for inputs and support)

Next Steps:

Extending FAO expert support to other local and national governments interested in developing urban agriculture projects; gradually decreasing Caracas gardeners' reliance on the state for inputs and logistical support.

Improve farmer's livelihoods

Case Study #10: Land Rentals increase Productivity and Equity in China

Description:

Secure rights to land promote the productive and sustainable use of the land, as well as investment into the land. Also, such unambiguous rights allow land to be transferred into the hands of more productive and efficient users and uses. As is evidenced by this case in China, land rental markets can contribute much to rural diversification and income growth in a rapidly growing economy. After the introduction of the household responsibility system in 1978, land-use rights were allocated on a per capita basis, leading to an egalitarian land “ownership” structure, with land also functioning as a social safety net. Although households held 15-year land-use contracts, administrative reallocation—in clear breach of contractual obligations—was regularly practiced in response to population growth or to make land available for nonagricultural purposes. But with rural-urban migrants tripling from 5 percent of the total labor force in 1988 to 17 percent (or 125 million migrants) in 2000, the limits of exclusive reliance on administrative allocations became obvious. Decentralized land rentals, which complemented and eventually replaced administrative reallocations, have proven just as equitable but significantly more productive. A national sample with information on the two parties in land transactions highlights the impact of land rentals on occupational structures, land productivity, and welfare. Firstly, land rentals transformed the occupational structure. While almost 60 percent of those renting out their land relied on agriculture as their main source of income before entering rental markets, only 17 percent continued to do so. Fifty-five percent migrated (up from 20 percent) and 29 percent engaged in local non-farm activity (up from 23 percent). Land rentals also increased productivity. Net revenue on rented plots rose by about 60 percent, supporting the notion that rental markets, by transferring land to better farmers from those with low ability or interest in agriculture, can improve rural welfare. Renters—who generally had less land, more family labor, and lower levels of assets and education—received about two-thirds of the gains, with the rest going to landlords in rents. Finally, net income for both renters and landlords increased—respectively by 25 percent and by 45 percent (partly due to migration income)—in a very equitable way.

Contacts:

(1) Benjamin and Brandt. 2002.

(2) Brandt, Rozelle, and Turner. 2004.

(3) Cai. 2003.

(4) Deininger and Jin. 2005.

(5) Kung and Liu. 1997.

Lessons Learned:

Well-functioning land rental markets (especially in a context of strong nonagricultural growth and migration) are imperative. Also, farmer’s property rights must be strengthened to increase productivity and efficient use of the land.

Obstacles:

In order for such laws to be in place, national governments must commit to the issue, and enforce the right to ownership of the land.

Next Steps:

Such land ownership reforms are proposed by recent initiatives, especially the 2003 Rural Land Contracting Law. Governments must agree to ensure secure and unambiguous property rights to land-owning farmers.

Case Study #11: Fair Trade and coffee production in Costa Rica

Description:

Fair Trade in Costa Rica began with coffee as a partnership between the Fair-trade organization, S.O.S. Werelhandel, and the tiny cooperative Cerro Azul. Today, the Costa Rican coffee Fair-trade partnership has expanded to include eight other small cooperatives besides Cerro Azul. There are two levels of producer organizations: a service rendering exporting association, Coocafé (El Consorcio de Cooperativas de Caficultores de Guanacaste y Montes de Oro R.L) and the nine primary level cooperatives that own and control it. The Fair-trade Labeling Organization model in use with Coocafé sets minimum standards: a floor price and premium for coffee and the requirement that purchases are made from democratically organized small producer organizations. Fair Trade support for the initial and continued viability of Coocafé has been effective. Although the primary co-operatives still rely on the price differential Fair Trade gives them over their competitors, especially in coffee crises, the consortium itself has furthered itself along the path of autonomy in terms of organizational strength. Perhaps the most important impact of non-price Fair-trade producer support is the development and establishment of Coocafé's own export arm; through extensive training and capacity support with the UK-based Fair-trade NGO, Twin, Coocafé achieved independence in 1997 from the Costa Rican exporters it had relied upon previously. Studies have shown there have been real livelihood gains for small-scale coffee farmers under Fair-trade agreements. It was found that through their participation in the Cerro Azul cooperative, farmers during the years from 1989-95 enjoyed coffee incomes that were on average 39% higher than farmers in the area who were not involved in fair trade. Additionally, Coocafé supports environmental education initiatives, which has resulted in the conversion of over 1,200 producers to more sustainable agricultural practices and the conversion of over 500 ha to certified organic production (7% of all producers).

Contact:

(1) Lorraine Ronchi. University of Sussex.

Lessons Learned:

The creation and maintenance of a fair-trade market in agriculture can improve farmer's livelihoods while creating a sustainable social and environmental system for farming.

Obstacles:

The interaction of NGO's and local farmers might be necessary to create systems that support low-income families, and promote sale of their products.

Next Steps: